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  • Chemistry of Cupcakes

    Chemistry of Cupcakes

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsCupcake ChemistryEpisode #18  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Amelie Bass and I am your host for episode #18 called Cupcake Chemistry. Today I will be discussing how the ingredients of a cupcake form the magical dessert we all know and love.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Cupcakes

    Cupcakes: the delicious dessert baked for a celebration or eaten as a late-night snack. But like what goes into the cupcake to give it a moist and fluffy cake? 

    I love baking a variety of treats but cupcakes are always a classic. 

    Ok, let’s start with the key ingredients of any good cupcake:

    FlourButterSugarEggsVanillaLeaveners, like baking powder and baking sodaDairy, like sour cream and milkAnd of course a good frosting and decorations

    In this episode we will be discussing the chemistry behind 2 of these ingredients, starting with….

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Baking Powder

    Leaveners (like the thing that gives the cupcake a light fluffy texture) are probably the most important ingredient in a cupcake. It is used to help the cupcake rise, giving it a light and fluffy texture.

    So what is a leavener, like what is the ingredient that is doing the rising. Baking soda and baking powder are what recipes will commonly call for. 

    Now some will call for both of these leaveners. But wait, why is that, why do I need 2? Hold onto that idea later and we will come back to it later. Let's first analyze what these two substances even are.

    Baking soda

    Sodium bicarbonate is a base, used to neutralize any acidic components (chocolate or citrus) in the batterWhen the cupcakes are baked, the baking soda or NaHCO3 in the batter turns into sodium carbonate, water, and carbon dioxideThe carbon dioxide which is released in bubbles, causing the batter to rise.

    Baking powder

    A dry mixture that contains baking soda, acid salts, and cornstarchThe baking soda reacts with the acid salts in the powder only when the mixture is moistenedThe...
  • Chemistry of Gasoline

    Chemistry of Gasoline

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of GasolineEpisode #17

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Adithya Shrikanth and I am your host for episode 1 called  Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry of Gasoline.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Gasoline

    Gasoline how it works are what are the differences between regular and premium and the difference between the gasoline in car and jets

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Gasoline

    The chemical composition of gasoline is C8H18 and it appears as a yellowish liquid. The problem is that gasoline is a liquid and for an engine of any vehicle to work it needs fuel. The wondrous thing about gasoline is that is vaporizes at low temperatures so the engine does not have to heat up much for the gasoline to turn into fuel. Gasoline is a petroleum-based compound so when the engine is running, the gasoline reacts with the air and a combustion reaction occurs turing the gasoline into a gas. To understand gasoline further we must know how the gasoline reacts with the engine. Despite the type of engines used, all of them use pistons. When the gasoline combusts, the explosion pushes the piston down which transfers energy to the crankshaft and so one eventually leading to a running car. How we know how gasoline works but what about the differences between gasoline. At the gas station we see two options, premium and regular and normally we use regular gasoline due to its price but why do these options exist. Well the main difference between regular and premium is the ocatnce level. Premium gasoline has a higher octane level. The level of octane in gasoline indicated the likelihood of improper engine combustion which is known as engine knock. The higher octane concentration in premium gasoline causes a lower likelihood of engine knock happening, this is why high premium gasoline is used in high-performance cars. Jets and cars both use fuel but what is the difference between them. Both aviation fuel and regular fuel use hydrocarbons but the difference is the type of hydrocarbons each fule uses. The hydocarbns that make up normal gasoline contain 7 to 11 carbon atoms attached to hydrogen atoms, the ones that make up Avatioan fuel contain 12-15 carbon atoms so jet fuel is made up of mostly kerosene. In theory jet fuel can be used in cars but car fuel cannot make a jet run because the conditions that a jet goes through are very different as compared to a car. At the hights that a jet travels, the temprature becomes -40 Celcius so normal gasoline would freeze at those temperatures so the combustion reactions would stop. Since jet fuel is mostly kerosene it has a low freezing point so that is why jet fuel and gasoline are different. 

    Segment 3: Personal Connections

    We all drive cars and have been in cars as long as we can remember. One of the converstones of driving a car is gasoline. We pull up to the gas station and see options for gasoline and we wonder what they all mean. We also wonder how a liquid can help a car or plane run.

    Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry...

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  • Chemistry of Steroids

    Chemistry of Steroids

    · Chemistry Connections

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is dongxuan and I am your host for episode #16 called .  chemistry in steroids  Today I/we will be discussing the structure and some basic information about the steriods

    The first therapeutic use of steroids occurred in the 18th century when English physician William Withering used digitalis, a compound extracted from the leaves of the common foxglove, to treat edema.

    steroid: any of a class of natural or synthetic organic compounds characterized by a molecular structure of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings.

    Today I’m gonna talk about 6 types of steroids. I’m gonna talking about their structure and their functions. 

    Cortisol plays an important role in the stress response. Maintaining an adequate balance of cortisol is essential for health.

    In many species, including amphibians, reptiles, rodents and birds, corticosterone is a main glucocorticoid involved in regulation of energy, immune reactions, and stress responses.

    Aldosterone A steroid hormone made by the adrenal cortex (the outer layer of the adrenal gland). It helps control the balance of water and salts in the kidney by keeping sodium in and releasing potassium from the body.

    Progesterone is an endogenous steroid hormone that is commonly produced by the adrenal cortex as well as the gonads, which consist of the ovaries and the testes. Progesterone is also secreted by the ovarian corpus luteum during the first ten weeks of pregnancy, followed by the placenta in the later phase of pregnancy.

    Oestradiol is a steroid hormone with a molecular weight of 272. It is secreted mainly by the ovary, but small amounts are produced by the adrenals and testis, so that in males and in post menopausal females' Oestradiol is always present at low concentrations.

    Testosterone is the primary male hormone responsible for regulating sex differentiation, producing male sex characteristics, spermatogenesis, and fertility. 

    Personal connection:

    Several weeks ago, I’m just doing a regular blood test, and the doctor said my platelets are low, and it’s getting lower. I have to go to the doctor. After the examination, the doctor told me that my immune system recognizes that my platelets are harmful and is destroying my platelets. So the doctor gave me decadron, that’s corticosterone. that’s a medicine that will suppress the immune system so it won’t destroy more platelets. SInce the decadron has many side effects. It cause me headaches, muscle pain, and stomach pain. So I decided to do some research about steroids. Because it really cause a lot of trouble to me. That’s the main reason that I choose this topic. That’s my connection with the steroids. 

    Thank you for listening to this episode of...

  • Chemistry of Catalytic Converters

    Chemistry of Catalytic Converters

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Catalytic ConvertersEpisode #15  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Matthew Nguyen and I am your host for episode 15 called Fumes to Fresh Air. Today I will be discussing the chemistry of catalytic converters. 

    Segment 1: Introduction to Catalytic Converters

    General Information on Catalytic Converters

    Used to reduce emissions from car enginesUsed in exhaust systems to remove harmless byproducts from internal combustion enginesRemoves nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons and turns them into carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen gasConverts 98% of the harmful emissions to less harmful gassesMost stolen parts of the car because it has valuable materials like platinum, rhodium, and palladium which can sell for a lot of moneyNo more than 4-9 grams of these precious metals are used in a single converterLocated between the muffler and the engineComposed of metal housing with a ceramic honeycomb-like interior with insulating layers
    To begin, I’ll first dive into what specifically a catalytic converter is and what its function is for those who don’t knowA catalytic converter filters out harmful emissions released by a vehicle.It is a metal square box containing a ceramic honeycomb interior, located on the underside of the car between the engine and muffler with insulating layers composed of precious metals like platinum, rhodium, and palladium. Because these metals are extremely valuable, they make the converter one of the most frequently stolen items in a car. Put a pin in that idea, we’ll come back to it later.Due to the elements of palladium, platinum, and rhodium, a single converter can filter 98% of harmful emissions like nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons into harmless gasses of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. 
    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Catalytic Converters

    The Chemistry part of Catalytic Converters

    One reduction and two oxidation reactions occur inside a catalytic converterNitrogen oxide reduces into elemental nitrogen and oxygenCarbon monoxide oxidized into carbon dioxide
  • Chemistry of Agent Orange

    Chemistry of Agent Orange

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe History & Chemistry of Agent OrangeEpisode #14  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Zoey and I am your host for episode #14 called The History & Chemistry of Agent Orange. Today I will be discussing The notorious herbicides used during the Vietnam War, its composition, and its impact.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Agent Orange

    We’ll first start by introducing the herbicide, agent orange and its history and use during the Vietnam War.

    Agent Orange was a mix of two herbicides which was sprayed in high concentrations during the Vietnam War by the U.S. Military. The name came from the orange stripe that was found on the containers of this chemical.Agent Orange, and other herbicides known as the “rainbow herbicides,” were part of a large operation, operation Ranch Hand, which aimed to defoliate lots of land through spraying chemical herbicides from aircrafts. Agent Orange was the most used herbicide during the Vietnam War.The chemical was sprayed in up to 20 times higher concentration than suggested for killing plants normally by manufacturers. This caused severe damage to millions of acres of forest, affected three million Vietnamese people with disease and defects, including children who were not alive during the war, and remained in soil for decades and disturbing the food sources.Agent Orange was the most commonly used chemical during the war to defoliate the forests and farmland of Vietnam and its neighboring countries Laos and Cambodia. This was for many reasons. One, this took away cover from the Viet Cong, who were guerilla fighters dependent on the cover provided by Vietnam’s thick forests. The destruction of farmland also caused many of the viet cong to be unable to sustain themselves rurally, which starved them or forced them to move closer to sustain themselves. This would take away rural nourishment support for the Viet Cong during the war, which were their main food sources.Agent Orange was eventually banned in 1971 by the United States, and remaining stocks were destroyed on a remote island.
    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Agent Orange

    Now we’re going to talk about the chemistry behind Agent Orange, and how it impacted the environment and people involved in the Vietnam War. We will first talk about the composition of Agent Orange, then why this chemical mixture caused so much damage to the environment and people.

    Agent Orange is a 1:1 mixture of two herbicides which are  (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid, or 2,4-D and 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, or 2,4,5-T. The herbicides were originally developed in the 1940s, but only used domestically until after WWII,...
  • Chemistry of Radiation Poisoning

    Chemistry of Radiation Poisoning

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Radiation PoisoningEpisode #13

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections. My name is Fox Ueng-McHale, and I am your host for episode #13, the Chemistry of Radiation Poisoning. Today, I will be discussing several chemical processes related to the effects of radiation exposure.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Radiation Poisoning

    Since the advent of the hydrogen bomb during the Second World War, radiation has quickly captured public attention. From medical uses to paint forgery detection, in one form or another radiation can be found in almost every industry. But uncontrolled, radiation can kill. And it’s this destructive potential that has dominated the public’s perception of radiation.

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Radiation Poisoning

    But what is radiation? In chemistry, radioactivity is the spontaneous breakdown of an atom's nucleus, emitting particles or waves. This is caused by chemical reactions. Here, atoms become more stable by participating in a transfer of electrons or by sharing electrons with other atoms. In nuclear reactions, it is the nucleus of the atom that gains stability by undergoing a change of some kind.

    This occurs as unstable isotopes shed. This radioactive decay is a reaction where a nucleus spontaneously disintegrates into a slightly lighter nucleus, emitting particles, energy, or both. One of the most important ways of measuring radioactive decay is the half life. This is the interval of time required for one-half of the atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay, calculated with the half-life formula. Shedding particles include alpha and beta radiation, as well as shedding protons or neutrons.

    The effects of radiation are horrifying, but surprisingly straightforward from a chemical perspective. Radiation poisoning comes in two classes: particulate and electromagnetic. Particulate ionizing radiation include alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and positrons; gamma rays and X rays are forms of electromagnetic ionizing radiation.

    Ionization is the cause of the toxic effects of ionizing radiation. Ionization of tissues creates highly reactive compounds. Radiation generates H2O+ and H2O- ions. In turn, these create H and OH radicals. Hydrogen and hydroxide ions are extremely reactive, causing massive biological damage, targeting DNA and proteins. Especially, ionizing radiation quickly kills rapidly dividing cells, targeting immature blood cells in bone marrow, cells lining the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract, and cells in the lower layers of the epidermis and in hair follicles. Ionizing radiation is the most harmful because it can ionize molecules or break chemical bonds, which damage the molecule and causes malfunctions in cell processes. It can also create reactive hydroxyl radicals that damage biological molecules and disrupt physiological processes.

    Segment 3: Personal Connections

    Moving into the future, it will be increasingly important to...

  • Chemistry of Bread

    Chemistry of Bread

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of BreadEpisode 12  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Maggie Maclean and Lilla Antal and I am your host for episode 12 called Chemistry of Bread. Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry involved in the making of bread.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Breadmaking

    The first bread was made around 12,000 years ago and was created by coarsely crushed grain mixed with water, with the resulting dough probably laid on heated stones and baked by covering it with hot ashes. At the time, we can imagine it was the tastiest bread out there. However, there is such a wide variety of different types of bread now. Whether it's sourdough, bagels, croissants, whole grain, Irish soda bread, English muffins, biscuits, pumpernickel, banana bread, or pizza dough it is found in all parts of life. Even people intolerant to these ingredients can enjoy a substitute made with gluten-free dough.    

    Maggie: My personal favorite is the classic Irish soda bread with gluten-free wheat of course toasted with raspberry jam and butter. This is the bread my parents made me growing up to connect me to my heritage. Lilla: You know I like a good whole grain rye bread toasted with eggs and cheese. Unison: Comment down below what YOUR favorite bread is, and while you’re down there smash that like button!!!

    Getting back on track… By the late nineteenth century, enzymes in the form of malt were being added to flour and dough to control and aid the breadmaking process in emerging commercial bakeries. However, over time this practice was abandoned as new chemical additives and processing aids became available. Let’s pause here and look at some of the chemistry at work. 

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Breadmaking

    Lilla:  The yeast in bread contains enzymes that can break down the starch in the flour into sugars. Yeast produces the enzyme maltase to break maltose into glucose molecules that it can ferment once the starch has been broken down into these simple sugars, other enzymes in yeast act upon simple sugars to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide in the bread-making step called fermentation.

    Maggie: The enzymes in yeast are natural catalysts. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction or lowers the temperature or pressure needed to start one, without itself being consumed during the reaction, in bread making the catalysts accelerate the fermentation of bread. Fermentation is the process where the dough produces and retains carbon dioxide in the form of microscopic air pockets. It rises as a result of this. Catalysts break down complex carbohydrates into sugar which yeast can feed off of. With sugars fueling yeast, it releases CO2 which makes bread rise. An you know I like a fluffy bread. 

    Lilla: When reactions happen, there energy is needed to break the...

  • Chemistry of Ice Hockey

    Chemistry of Ice Hockey

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsEpisode Title: The Chemistry of Ice HockeyEpisode #11  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Lucy and Jack and we are your hosts for episode 11 called The Chemistry of Ice Hockey. 

    Segment 1: Introduction to Ice Hockey

    Ice hockey is one of the greatest sports to both play and watch. It features extremely fast-paced and physical gameplay because it's played on ice. Hockey originated in Canada during the early 1800s and comes from the French word “hocquet” meaning stick. The game involves one goalie and five other players who skate around trying to score goals. One of the greatest sporting achievements ever, The Miracle on Ice, was an Olympic ice hockey game when the underdog US men’s team beat the top seed USSR team. This illustrates the elusive nature of hockey and the unpredictability surrounding it drawing fans from all around the globe. 

    Segment 2: Personal Connections

    Both of us adore sports. Hockey has been a key aspect of my childhood and a way I have connected with my family. And I hope to become a professional sports commentator, so it was only natural for both of us to research the chemistry and science behind hockey. 

    Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind Ice Hockey

    Lets pause here to talk about some chemistry at work. We will be covering the most important aspect of hockey, the ice (but put a pin in that)! First, though,  we will discuss the pucks that slide across the ice. 

    Pucks are made out of vulcanized rubber. Vulcanized rubber is used to create o-rings, tires, and much more. Its unique properties make it a useful tool in not just ice hockey. Before the process of vulcanization was developed rubber was susceptible to changes in temperature, too hot and the rubber would quickly melt, too cold and the rubber would become extremely brittle. This would be ineffective as an ice hockey puck because it is a sport played in the cold on ice, it would lose all of its strong yet elastic properties. Vulcanization is a process that involves heating rubber and combining it with sulfur to improve its elasticity and strength. 

    Vulcanization works by forming chemical cross-links or covalent bonds (attractive force between nonmetal atoms) between long isoprene molecules (a natural rubber monomer aka a carbon chain) using sulfur. This when diagramed looks like long carbon chains parallel to each other, connected by perpendicular bonds with sulfur. This forms a net-like structure which contributes to the hockey puck’s key characteristics (resistance to extreme temperatures and strength). This allowed Alexander Riazantsev, from the KHL (Russian pro league) to hit a slap shot at 114.27 MPH. 

    Maybe even more important to...

  • Chemistry of Fishing

    Chemistry of Fishing

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of fishingEpisode #10  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ryan  Foret and I am your host for episode #10 called  Chemistry of Fishing Today I will be discussing the different examples of chemistry in various aspects of fishing.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Fishing

    The thrill of reeling in a fish and fighting against it is one of the most exhilarating things that humans can do for fun. What makes the sport even better is that almost anyone can do it with minimal equipment and cost. That being said, there is a variety of high-end and complex gear that experienced fishermen use. And I bet if you talk to any long time fisherman they will complain about why a bendy stick is over 500 dollars. But beginner fishermen don’t really need to worry about that.

    Fishing can be very simple or very complicated depending on how deep you want to dive into the different types of gear and techniques that can be used. 

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Fishing

    Today, we are going to dive deeper than any fisherman usually does in their lifetime and look at fishing on the molecular level. And that is what today’s episode is all about: the chemistry behind fishing. 

    Let’s start with diving deeper into the most dreaded thing that people think about when they hear “fish”; the smell. A certain chemical compound is the culprit of the fishy smell of fish. Trimethylamine (TMA) is what gives fish its odor. It’s derived from Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) which protects saltwater fish from their salty environment. TMAO has nitrogen as its central atom with 3 CH3 groups and and an oxygen bonded to it. The oxygen atom breaks off of the compound and TMAO turns into TMA as the fish dies. This explains why old fish smells very bad and fresh fish shouldn’t have a foul odor.

    Next, I want to talk about the chemistry behind the gear used to catch fish. Starting with fishing rods.  Fishing rods are made from graphite and carbon fiber. Graphite is a covalent network solid made from carbon atoms that is very strong. Covalent network solids are solids made from nonmetals covalently bonded to each other that create lattice structures. Some examples of other covalent network solids are Diamond and silicon dioxide.

     Many people think of graphite as very weak and brittle because of the number 2 pencils made from graphite they use in school every day. But graphite is quite strong due to the hexagonal honeycomb lattice of the material’s molecular structure. In fact, the only thing separating graphite from diamond which is one of the hardest materials on earth is one carbon atom. 

    The graphite in fishing rods is made into sheets made of graphite fibers that can bend and form around a center of material called the mandrel which is usually steel. The sheets of carbon are very strong and don’t break when stretched, but they can break under compression. This is why rods break on the underside where the material is...

  • Chemistry of Chemotherapy

    Chemistry of Chemotherapy

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of ChemotherapyEpisode #9  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Mahisvi Vemulapalli and I am your host for episode #9 called The Chemistry of Chemotherapy. Today, I will be discussing how chemotherapy works in the human body.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Chemotherapy

    Before we talk about chemotherapy, we need to know what cancer is. Cancer is a disease where damaged DNA results in cells overproducing and spreading to other parts of the body, resulting in the gathering of a tumor. These tumors latch onto the body parts to surrounding cells, growing exponentially in size and taking over the body’s systems. In order to combat cancer, chemotherapy was applied. However, the origin of chemotherapy comes from the discovery of reduced white blood cell counts after people were exposed to nitrogen mustard during World War II. Before you guys get excited about mustard, no, it is not the mustard that you eat. Nitrogen mustard was used in chemical warfare during the war as blister agents. Although the intentions of nitrogen mustard were to harm their opponents, the discovery allowed researchers to start examining the therapeutic effect of mustard agents in treating lymphoma, a type of cancer that arises in the lymph nodes. Though more nitrogen mustard had to be utilized, it was proven that the patient’s tumor masses were significantly reduced, marking the start of the use of cytotoxic agents for the treatments of cancer in 1946. Chemotherapy, otherwise known as chemical healing, started its fame that year. Therefore, as forms of chemotherapy updated and become popularized, there was a decline in mortality rates, making this form of treatment the most common for cancer. Today, we will be focusing on paclitaxel, a chemotherapy drug used for breast, lung, and ovarian cancer.

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Chemotherapy

    Solubility

    However, the mysteries of chemotherapy start from how it is administered. So today, let’s talk about the truth behind paclitaxel. Paclitaxel is a part of the bark of a Pacific yew tree (don’t eat the fruits unless you vomit!), but actually, paclitaxel is actually a tetracyclic diterpenoid, an organic nonmetal compound with a base of 20 carbons, and many more carbonic structures on top of that. In fact, paclitaxel consists of 47 carbons, 51 hydrogens, 14 oxygens, and one nitrogen atom (that’s a lot of atoms!). Based off its molecular structure, this molecule mainly forms London dispersion forces (LDFs), with fewer hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds only occur with the nitrogen and a few oxygen bonds. Though it may seem like there should be more hydrogen bonds, the distribution of the hydrogens amongst the oxygens are dispersed due to the established diterpenoid base with 20 carbons. Overall, this structures causes there to be a greater London dispersion force charge. Paclitaxel itself is originally a fine white powder. In order to administer as an injection, it needs to be dissolved in a soluble solution. Paclitaxel is not soluble in water. This is due to its organic structure that contains mainly LDFs. Therefore, paclitaxel is a nonpolar substance that can only dissolve

  • Chemistry of Batteries

    Chemistry of Batteries

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of BatteriesEpisode #8  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Brando and Kai and I am your host for episode #8 called the chemistry of batteries?  Today we will be discussing what are batteries, the different types of batteries, and the chemistry behind them. 

    Segment 1: Introduction to BatteriesHistory of BatteriesBenjamin Franklin and his charged glass platesVoltaic PileTo cell battery technology
    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind BATTERIESExplain the two cell battery systemGeneral description of what a battery is (cells, cathode where electrons are produced, anode where electrons are gained, redox reaction that takes place, one half reaction in one cell, a different half reaction in another cell)Commercial types:Alkaline batteriesAre commonly used in household items like remote controls and flashlights, rely on the chemical reaction between zinc (Zn) and manganese dioxide (MnO₂).Anode reaction: ZnZn2++2e-Cathode reaction: 2MnO+2H2O+2e-2MnO(OH)+2OH-Overall reaction: Zn+2MnO+2H2O+2e-Zn2++2e-Lithium-Ion batteriesAre prevalent in portable electronics and electric vehicles due to their high energy density. The fundamental reactions involve lithium ions (Li⁺) moving between the anode and cathode through an electrolyte.Anode reaction: LiC66C+Li++e-Cathode reaction: CoO2+Li++e-LiCoO2Overall reaction: LiC6+Li+CoO26C+LiCoO2Lead-Acid batteriesAre commonly used in automotive applications due to their ability to deliver high surge currents. The reactions involve lead (Pb), lead dioxide (PbO₂), and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).Anode reaction: Pb+SO4-2PbSO4+2H2OCathode reaction: PbO2+4H++SO4-2+2e-PbSO4+2H2OOverall reaction: Pb+PbO2+2H2SO42PbSO4+2H2OExperimental/advanced types:Solid-State BatteriesLithium-Sulfur BatteriesGraphene and Silicon Anode Batteries
    Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWe like roboticsIn FRC robotics, we use Lead acid batteries, which are big and...
  • Chemistry of Golf

    Chemistry of Golf

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of GolfEpisode #_7_  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Christian Mayer and my name is AJ Yadamiec and we are your hosts for episode #7 called The 19th Hole Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry of golf.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Golf. Clubs and Balls. For those of you not familiar with golf, the objective of the game is to get a little ball into a hole far away by hitting it with your clubs in as few shots as possible. A round of golf consists of 18 holes. Each hole has a “par” or number of strokes typically taken to get it in the hole. The par for the average round of golf is 72, but can be 71 or 70 depending on the course. A golfer carries around with them a bag of clubs, each with a different purpose and distance capable of hitting the ball. On the tee box, which is where the hole starts, golfers will typically use a driver or a wood in order to get maximum distance on their first shot. From there, depending on the distance to the hole, the golfer will hit an iron or wedge to try and get on the green, which is the shortly cut area of grass on which the hole lies. Once on the green, the golfer will use their putter, an unlofted and usually shorter club, to putt the ball into the hole.Each club is made up of two parts, the shaft and the club head. A different material is used for the heads between the three types of clubs, with lightness being preferred for the driver in order to achieve a high swing speed, strength is favored in iron materials to add power to the shot, while a heavier material is preferable for the putter for greater control. 
    Segment 4: Personal Connections

    We are interested in this topic because we both like to golf. (Christian) I was on the golf team for 4 years in high school. I am a 10 handicap, which means on a par 72 golf course, I would shoot around an 82. My favorite club I have is my 3 wood. It has a graphite shaft with a stainless steel club face with a 17-4 stainless steel club head. I mainly just play for fun. (AJ) I just got into golf a year ago and am not that good. I enjoy golfing though very much. I like to play scramble, with a partner and my friend and I usually shoot around 100 on a par 72 golf course which is pretty poor. My favorite club to use is the 3 wood. 

    Now that we’ve gotten a basic understanding of golf, we're gonna play a theoretical hole with you. While we play we will dive into the chemistry behind the sport. 
    Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind BALLS 

    You take out your golf ball, let’s take the top of the line Titleist ball, the Pro V1. What seems like a very simple dimpled white object at first glance has been engineered meticulously to allow for the perfect amount of distance, control, and spin on every shot. 

    Golf balls consist of three main layers, the Core, the Mantle, and the Cover. Golf Ball manufacturers change these...
  • Chemistry of Cookies

    Chemistry of Cookies

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of CookiesEpisode #6  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Zoe Reznik and I am your host for episode #6 called Chemistry of Cookies. Today I will be discussing the science behind your perfect chocolate chip cookie.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of Cookies

    Introduce the episode topic

    Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

    Every chocolate chip cookie has a different set of chemical properties and reactions that give them their unique textures. Whether your idea of the perfect cookie means it being chewy, crispy, or soft, there is a specific set of ingredients that give your cookie that wow factor. To start, every cookie has the same base ingredients: flour, sugar, eggs, and butter. What you add to that list of ingredients really makes the cookie what it is. In this episode, I’ll be diving into the types of rising agents you can use and the different types of sugar.
    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Cookies

    Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

    Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

    Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

    To begin our investigation of the cookie, we’ll talk about the types of rising agents you use in your cookies, specifically baking soda and baking powder. “soda spread and powder puffs” - baking soda helps your cookie dough spread out in the oven and baking powder helps the cookie rise. Adding more baking soda will create a denser cookie, that’s flatter and not as soft. Adding more baking powder will result in a cookie that is taller and more doughy (more cake-like texture). baking soda, sodium bicarbonate, decomposes into water and carbon dioxide when heated, with a leftover salt. These products are gas -> warmer gas molecules will have particles that move faster, so they collide with other molecules in the cookie more, causing the cookie to expand in the oven. However, the salt slows down the process of the bubbles creating air pockets within the cookie, meaning the cookie will fall flat instead of rising like it should. This is where the baking powder comes in. Baking powder combines that sodium bicarbonate with an acid that helps the cookies rise. 
  • Chemistry of Sour Candy

    Chemistry of Sour Candy

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of Sour CandyEpisode #5  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Anna Zhao and I am your host for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Sour Candy. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind turning regular sugar into hard candy and the chemistry behind citric acid.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Candy

    Hard candy is a product made predominantly from sugar and corn syrup that may be flavored or colored, and is characterized by a hard, brittle texture. 

    When we talk about candy making, one of the central ideas is crystallization. This is the process where sugar molecules arrange themselves into a well defined, repeating structure known as a crystal. The texture of the candy whether its smooth like caramel or crunchy like rock candy, depends on how the sugar crystals are formed. 

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Sour Candy

    At the heart of candy making is a simple ingredient we all know: sugar, or more specifically, sucrose. Now, lets zoom in and further look at the polarity of sucrose. Sucrose is a polar molecule, meaning it has distinct positive and negative ends. 

    The overal polarity depends on both the individual bond polarities, and the geometry of the molecule. 

    Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a covalent bond. When two atoms in a molecule have different electronegativities, the electrons in the bond are not shared equally, resulting in a polar bond. The atoms in sucrose are Carbon with an electronegativity of 2.55, Hydrogen with an electronegativity of 2.20, and oxygen with an electrogetivity of 3.44.

     Using these values, it is determined that C-H bonds have an electronegativity difference of 0.35 (smal diff), C-O have 0.89 (large diff considered polar), and O-H have a diff of 1.24 (very large diff considered very polar).

    C-O bonds are polar because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. This causes a partial neg charge on the oxygen atoms and a partial pos charge on the carbon atom. O-H bonds are even more polar due to the larger electronegativity difference between oxygen and H. This results in a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial pos charge on the hydrogen atom. 

    Sucrose is a three dimensional structure with hydroxyl (OH) groups extending in various directions. The asymmetry of the molecule means that the dipole moments of the bonds do not cancel each other out, making the molecule polar. 

    Knowing that sucrose is polar is important because it explains how and why sugar dissolves in water. 

    So what happens when you heat it up? When you heat a sugar and water solution. You’re not just dissolving sugar. You’re actually changing the crystal structure. By applying heat, we separate the highly bound sucrose crystals, allowing us to manipulate...

  • Chemistry of Minerals

    Chemistry of Minerals

    · Chemistry Connections

    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

    Chemistry Connections

    The Chemistry of Minerals

    Episode #4  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ben Ault and I am your host for episode #4 called The Chemistry of Minerals. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind the formation and properties of minerals.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Minerals

    Minerals are a classification of substances that are formed naturally via geological processes and form crystalline structures. Specifically, this means that they are usually formed by different substances undergoing reactions deep beneath the earth's surface, under extreme temperature and pressure conditions.

    In this segment, I'll cover:

    What defines a mineralThe result of the chemical properties of mineralsThe difference between rocks and mineralsSpecies distinctions of mineralsClassification of minerals
    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Minerals

    All of this is a result of the atomic behaviors of the elements that compose each mineral. All of these phenomena and patterns can be explained by delving into the chemistry within each mineral.

    In this segment, I'll cover:

    Topic 1: Formation

    Conditions that enable the formation of mineralsHow the conditions can affect the types of minerals createdFormation through volcanic or oceanic activity

    Topic 2: Properties as a result of bond types

    Bond structures of mineralsEmpirical structures and formulasConditions that determine bond structureCrystal structures in relation to bond structureMalleability and pure metallic minerals

    Topic 3: Properties as a result of elemental composition

    How elemental composition affects colorPredictions of elements in a mineral based off of colorFluorescent minerals
    Segment 3: Personal Connections

    When I was in kindergarten, I had a teacher that gave my class little rocks and minerals for doing well, and explained to us whatever we could understand at that age. Since then, I've kept my collection of rocks and I've...

  • Chemistry of Caffeine

    Chemistry of Caffeine

    · Chemistry Connections

    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

    Chemistry Connections

    Chemistry of Caffeine

    Episode #3 

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Neve and Alana and I am your host for episode #3 called Chemistry of Caffeine Today we will be discussing The chemical structure and function of the caffeine molecule.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Caffeine

    Introduce the episode topic

    Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

    Alana: Hey everyone, I’m Alana…and I’m Neve… and welcome to this week's episode of Chemistry Connections, where today, we will be discussing the chemistry of everyone's favorite chemical: caffeine!!!!!!!! Caffeine is a chemical compound which is commonly found in beverages and serves as a central nervous system stimulant, and it is the most widely used CNS stimulant in the world. 

    Neve: Whether it be in your morning coffee, or your pre-workout energy drink, people these days can’t get enough of this energizing substance.

    Alana: In one year, Americans will consume over 971 tons of pure caffeine (Cooper Aerobics). That's a LOT!

    Neve: Since we consume so much of it, it's probably important to understand it better.

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Caffeine

    Alana: Caffeine at its foundation, is just a combination of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen, with a chemical structure of C8H10N4O2. 

    Neve: The molecule has 25 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds. Sigma bonds are bonds that are directly in line with the nuclei of the bonding atoms. Pi bonds occur when there are multiple bonding spots, located either above or below the nuclei of the bonding atoms.

    Alana:  Each single bond is made up of one sigma bond, and each double bond is made up of one sigma and one pi bond. Because of this, there are 25 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds that make up a caffeine molecule. Neve: All the bonds in a caffeine molecule are stable, covalent bonds, as the bonding allows each atom to completely fill its valence shell. 

    Alana: These bonds are slightly polar, making the caffeine molecule a polar molecule. The molecule is polar because there are EN differences between the oxygen/nitrogen and carbon atoms, allowing the oxygen/nitrogen atoms to slightly pull the electrons towards them in the bond. 

    Neve:

  • Chemistry of Chipotle

    Chemistry of Chipotle

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of Chipotle Episode #2  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Maxxe Rice and I am your host for episode #2 called The Chemistry of Chipotle Today I will be discussing the best food known to man, Chipotle.

    Segment 1: Introduction to Chipotle 

    For the first segment I will be discussing an introduction to what Chipotle is. For those who don't know, Chipotle is the best fast food restaurant chain that serves Mexican inspired cuisine. They are infamous for their delicious burritos, bowls, quesadillas, chips and guacamole. The restaurant is set up when you are ordering in an assembly line style in which you customize your burrito, bowl, or whatever you are choosing to get as you go down the line with workers scooping the ingredients for you. They go by their motto at chipotle that, “Real is better. Better for You, Better for People, Better for Our Planet.” They make their food fresh every day because of their motto and they use no artificial flavors, colors, or preservatives, no freezers, can openers, or shortcuts… I know I wouldn't want to work there either, it seems like a lot of work. But really that's what makes them so good they are committed to their amazing food and they only use 53 real ingredients. There is also an extreme debate about how to pronounce Chipotle especially with my grandparents and I. My grandma calls it Chi-poat-lee, my other grandma calls it Chi-pot-te but all of those are wrong. The correct way to say chipotle is Chih-poat-lay. 

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Chipotle

    Now you know what chipotle is, let's dive into some of the science behind this outstanding food. 

    Specifically starting with: a common ingredient in chipotles renowned known guacamole, tomato red chili salsa, fresh tomato salsa, roasted chili corn salsa, honey vinaigrette, tomatillo green chili salsa, and so many other foods that chipotle has that if I said all of them I would be talking for almost 5 minutes. One ingredient that all of these foods have in common is some type of pepper. These peppers also have something in common as well… SPICEEEEEEE. This is where the chemistry comes in…. Because well the spicy flavor that you taste with some of chipotle's food is due to a spice molecule named capsaicin…. I know what you may be thinking capsa what?! Yes you heard it right, capsaicin. Capsaicin is my cool friend that basically has active chemical superpowers. Capsaicin, the molecular formula of C18H27NO3,  is an organic molecule which is made up of a benzene ring with a long hydrophobic carbon tail and a polar amide group. Now let's take a further look into the actual structure of the molecule because that sounds really confusing. A benzene ring is a ring formation of six carbon atoms which are bonded together and have alternating single and double bonds between them. The long hydrophobic carbon tail means essentially a chain of carbon atoms bonded together with surrounding hydrogen atoms around them bonded to each carbon on the chain. The polar amide group is the part of the molecule where there is a nitrogen atom and a double bonded oxygen atom. We can break this...

  • Chemistry of Slime

    Chemistry of Slime

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of SlimeEpisode #_1_  

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Agathe and my name is Beck. We are your hosts for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Slime.  Today we will be deep-diving into the chemistry of slime. We will discuss not only what slime is but also how it is made. 

    Segment 1: Introduction to Slime

    Slime—something we all know and love. Typically, you see it on TikTok or Instagram, where someone mixes glue and an unknown clear substance in a bowl, ultimately creating a fun, rubbery material. It is enjoyable to play with, poke, stretch, and make large bubbles with, but what makes slime the way it is, and what allows it to behave like that?

    Slime is made by mixing glue with an activator containing boric acid. Typically, people use borax, a common clothing cleaner, mixed with water and then add it to the glue.

    But Beck, what if I don't have Borax, or what if my parents dont let me use such a strong cleaner, especially when I am making slime with my little sister

    Others like myself, who prefer to avoid strong chemicals, tend to use baking soda and contact solution. Which works just as well and is much more accessible and safe.  The resulting substance is rubbery and molten, yet not sticky, allowing it to be played with for hours. But the interesting question is why is slime the way it is, why is it moldable but not sticky.

    Put a pin in that Beck we will talk about that later. Another fun aspect of slime is that it can be tailored to anyone's preferences, with its color, texture, and size changing depending on the added ingredients. This versatility makes slime a popular and customizable activity for many.

    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Slime

    Going back to your question from earlier beck Topic one: The formation of PVA/borate cross-linked polymer (How is Slime Made?)

    glue is made up of PVA chains, which are basically long chains of CH2, Oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. Then we have, borate ions which are found in the activator, which are made up of boron bonded to hydrogen and oxygen. When mixed together, the borate ions bond the PVA chains of the glue together, creating a fishnet structure which is called cross-linking. So beck, What type of bonds connect the Borate to PVA? 

    Well it is actually hydrogen bonds, which are a type of intermolecular dipole dipole force that is very strong. They are formed when hydrogen is bonded to a very electronegative element, either Nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. The resulting bond is very strong and allows slime to be formed. But one thing you will notice is that when making slime it actually get colder, why is that Agathe

    Interestingly, the reaction is endothermic, meaning it absorbs energy in the form of heat from its surroundings to form new bonds, causing the slime to feel cold. The endothermic nature of the reaction is due to the formation of these hydrogen bonds, which requires a lot of energy to be created.

     Wow! That is so...

  • Chemistry of Venomous Snakes

    Chemistry of Venomous Snakes

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Snake VenomEpisode # 6 Segment 1: Introduction to Snake Venoms2 Main categories of venomous snakesElapids ElapidsAny of 300 species of venomous snakes (all venomous)Short, fixed fangs at the front of the JawLong, slender bodies with small headsMostly lay eggs, but a few do bear living young (largely only Australian species)Bite with a downward strike, and often chew prey to envenomateBite relatively painless, but can kill quickly through paralysis of heart and lung musclesCobra relativesTalk about fang structureGeneral characteristicsViperids (Vipers)Over 200 related speciesLong, hollow fangs that are folded back to the roof of the mouth until strikingSome species, known as pit vipers, have a temperature-sensing organ that allows them to hunt warm-blooded prey even when they cannot seeLarge venom glands lead to a more triangular or pear-shaped head Fang structure and general characteristics
    Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Snake Venoms

    Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

    Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

    Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

    Viperid and elapid venom mechanism of actionViperid - hemolytic and necroticHow and whySpecific example - Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)Affects blood circulation, causing severe tissue and organ damage.Certain proteins prevent
  • Chemistry of Antacids

    Chemistry of Antacids

    · Chemistry Connections
    Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of AntacidsEpisode #5

    Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Janya and Arya and we are your hosts for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Antacids, which is also what we will be discussing today. 

    Segment 1: Introduction to Antacids

    For this segment we are going to be talking about what antacids are, and in what situations they can be used for. 

    Do you know what antacids are?

    Not really….

    Well, they are medicines used to treat heartburn and indigestion!

    But what is heartburn exactly? Is you’re heart on fire?

    Noooo. Heartburn is caused by excess stomach acid that travels up the esophagus.

    Sounds gross!

    Well, if you want to reduce them, you can reduce the amount of acid in your stomach, by eating less acidic foods for example. 

    Some acidic foods include tomatoes, oranges, and… chocolate. (yes if you want to have less heartburns, you have to eat less chocolate). 

    Right, so when you eat less of these foods, the acid won’t have a chance to travel up the esophagus. I get it now!

    Antacids also do the same thing, because it reduces the amount of acid that’s in your stomach (technically, the excess acid) 

    And your problem is solved!

    But not really, because this didn’t treat the actual cause of heartburns or indigestion 

    They usually relieve symptoms for a few hours, so it is not a permanent solutionAntacids can be found in liquid form as well as tablet form, but liquid form works better (don’t really need to say)Antacids helps to relieve a variety of symptoms such as a burning sensation/pain in your chest/stomach, acidic taste in your mouth, feeling of being bloated. More serious problems which antacids can help treat include: acid reflux (GERD), stomach lining inflammation (gastritis), and stomach ulcersSome common active ingredients in antacids include aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and salts (sodium).These active ingredients help raise the pH level in the stomach, reducing the acidity and providing temporary relief from symptoms. Antacids typically provide quick but short-term relief and are not intended for long-term use. It's important to follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate usage and dosage recommendations.
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