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In Book 3 of Against Heresies, Saint Irenaeus of Lyons continues his refutation of Gnostic teachings and elaborates on the unity and truth of the Christian faith. He begins by pointing out that the Apostles did not speak about the mysteries of God until they received gifts and power from the Holy Spirit. The fact that we have an unbroken lineage from the Apostles to our own day points to this power. Indeed, Irenaeus lists, by name, the bishops of Rome in this lineage, further drawing out that it is through the Church – through the Holy Spirit – that the truth is preserved. And it is in the church that it can be found. Next, he shows how the Holy Spirit is present in the Old Testament, reaffirms that God is the creator, not a demiurge, and refutes the error of the Ebionites who claimed that the Apostle Paul was the only Apostle with true wisdom.
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Within the Second Book of Against Heresies, Saint Irenaeus endeavors yet again to lay bare the sophistries of the gnostic sects by demonstrating that neither the angels nor any supposed Demiurge distinct from a higher, supreme God created the universe. Instead, he shows that there is but one God – and it is this one God who created the Universe. Building upon his work in the first book, he further shows that the created world is neither an image nor a shadow of a higher spiritual plane. Such gnostic inventions, he claims, are the result of a wicked interpretation of scripture – a hermeneutic that he corrects by explaining the proper method of interpretation.
In the last portion of the book, Ireneaus explores the relationship between the body and the soul. In Chapter 29, he briefly explores their resting states after biological death. Later he touches on metempsychosis arguing that logic does not permit the passing of the soul from one body to another after death simply because the soul would remember the experiences in prior bodies. In Chapter 34, he notes that souls can be recognized in the liminal space of being separated from the body before the general resurrection – something possible by what Saint Augustine would call a quasi corpus in On the Soul and Its Origin, 4.34 (for more on the soul, check out my book here).
According to Irenaeus, it would seem that many of the issues that plague Christianity today were already present in the late second century (namely, restricting God to man-made systems designed to use human reason to explain things better left to the wisdom and mystery of God).
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Against Heresies by Saint Irenaeus is a critique of the emerging heretical doctrines of the second century. Written around 180 A.D by the prominent Bishop of Lyons, the monumental work showcases Irenaeus’ comprehensive understanding of Sacred Scripture and Apostolic Tradition, as he passionately refutes the teachings of the Marcions and gnostics.
Composed of five books total, Book1 of Against Heresies primarily focuses on the dangers posed by various gnostic sects and their teachings. Irenaeus lays out the beliefs and practices of these groups, highlighting their departure from Orthodox Christianity. He explains the central tenets of the gnostic worldview, including duality between matter and spirit, the role of secret knowledge, and the denial of the physical resurrection. He argues that these ideas distort the true nature of God, the identity of Jesus Christ, and the purpose of his redemptive works.
Through his examination of different gnostic teaching, Ireneaus seeks to warn and educate Christians on the deceptive nature of heresy and to assert the importance of holding fast to the apostolic tradition.
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The Dialogue with Trypho, composed around 155-160 AD, is a foundational work by the early Christian philosopher and apologist Saint Justin Martyr. Structured as a Socratic dialogue, it records Justin's debate with a Jewish man named Trypho, representing the contemporary discourse between Christians and Jews. In a dialectical style, Justin aims to demonstrate how the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament find fulfillment in Jesus Christ.
This text provides invaluable insight into the biblical interpretation, exegetical methods, and theological reasoning of the 2nd century Church. A central focus is establishing Christianity's relationship to Judaism. Justin contends Christ ushered in the New Covenant, abrogating the Mosaic Law. He argues from scripture that Jesus is the divine Logos incarnate, the prophesied Messiah to whom all scripture points.
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Another key issue is the status of Israel after rejecting Christ. Justin sees this justifying God's turning to the Gentile nations to build his Church. He counters Jewish objections to Christian interpretations of scripture being about Christ. Philosophically, Justin defends Christian doctrines like the incarnation as rationally coherent against pagan critiques.
The Dialogue carries immense importance for understanding nascent Christian thought. It preserves the biblical exegesis, theological discourse, and apologetic arguments aimed at convincing Jews and pagans of Christianity's truth. This first-hand testimony illuminates the early Church's self-conception and outlines core doctrinal developments on topics like Christology and the Old/New Covenants. With its sophisticated reasoning, the Dialogue displays the intellectual foundations being laid for the budding Christian tradition.
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The second apology of Saint Justin Martyr was written during the second century as a defense of the Christian Faith against unjust persecution. At the time, Christianity was seen as a threat to the established pagan religious practices, resulting in sporadic outbreaks of violence against Christians.
Tragically, the defense offered by Saint Justin Martyr was not enough to protect him from persecution. Despite his erudite arguments, Justin Martyr was eventually arrested and brought before the Roman authorities. Refusing to renounce his faith, he was condemned to death and martyred for his beliefs. Though his earthly life was taken, his legacy lives on as a pillar of early Christian intellectual and spiritual thought.
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The First Apology of Saint Justin Martyr was written around 155 AD during a time of Christian persecution under Emperor Antoninus Pius and his sons. The aim of the letter: to argue against the persecution of the Church and defend the teachings of Christianity. As a seasoned philosopher, Saint Justin examines the role of reason and philosophy in the pursuit of truth, emphasizing that Christianity is the fulfillment of all philosophical and religious aspirations. To this end, he highlights the sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist, touching on the Christian belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist together with the importance of Christian worship. About ten years after composing letter, however, Saint Justin would be martyred for his faith.
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Dated somewhere between the late first and early second century A.D., the Epistle of Barnabas is a work traditionally attributed to Barnabas, a companion of the Apostle Paul. The author's meticulous employment of typology, which seeks to draw meaningful connections between the events, people, and institutions of the Old Testament and their counterparts in the New Testament, gives a kind of divine life to the work wherein the reader is presented with a vision of the Holy Scriptures as a beautiful tapestry of God's love for mankind.
Amidst this profound theological exploration, however, the author of the epistle also includes certain passages that, viewed in light of contemporary knowledge, appear flawed or erroneous. For example, in Chapter 10 Barnabas explains that God forbade the consumption of Hyenas because they change sexes annually (the male becomes female and the female, male), a lore that held sway from the 6th Century B.C., in Aesop's fables, to Earnest Hemingway's 1935 book, "The Green Hills of Africa" and has only recently been proven false. In the same chapter, he writes that the weasel's reproductive system is located in its mouth (also proven false). But these simple inaccuracies should neither concern us nor overshadow the epistle's theological points.
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Indeed, we can accept that the Epistle of Barnabas was simply repeating the biology of its time without allowing such anecdotal inaccuracies to diminish the overall importance of the work or its theological insights. The reason is simple: it is, in fact, a work of theology not biology – and while the author's understanding of biological fact was limited to the prevailing knowledge of his day, his theological insights stand unbound by the fetters of time. Indeed, the reader may find in reading this work that, while we may know more about biology in our day, we know far less about the prophetic typology within the Old Testament.
This account of the martyrdom of Saint Ignatius of Antioch, which was written by Ignatius's compatriots Philo of Cilicia and Rheus Agathopus who were eyewitnesses of his death, is testament to the Bishop's unwavering faith and fearless commitment to Jesus Christ. According to Tradition, the Saint drew courage by repeating the name of Jesus Christ – whom he claimed to carry with him by the etching of his name, through ceaseless prayer, on his heart. It is said that the lions that devoured the Saint in the Roman Colosseum left his heart untouched, revealing a golden inscription of the name Jesus Christ upon it. In honor of the saints courageous martyrdom, the bones of Saint Ignatius were gathered and preserved and now rest in the Basilica di San Clemente in Rome.
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Read the Epistle of Barnabas on NewAdvent.org.
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This account of the martyrdom of Saint Ignatius of Antioch, which was written by Ignatius's compatriots Philo of Cilicia and Rheus Agathopus who were eyewitnesses of his death, is testament to the Bishop's unwavering faith and fearless commitment to Jesus Christ. According to Tradition, the Saint drew courage by repeating the name of Jesus Christ – whom he claimed to carry with him by the etching of his name, through ceaseless prayer, on his heart. It is said that the lions that devoured the Saint in the Roman Colosseum left his heart untouched, revealing a golden inscription of the name Jesus Christ upon it. In honor of the saints courageous martyrdom, the bones of Saint Ignatius were gathered and preserved and now rest in the Basilica di San Clemente in Rome.
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Saint Ignatius of Antioch, who was born around 35 A.D., was a direct disciple of the Apostles Peter and John, who taught him the faith and later ordained him to be the third bishop of Antioch according to Saint John Chrisostom. Like many early Christians, Saint Ignatius underwent persecution at the hands of the Roman Emperor; eventually, he was arrested and condemned to death in the arena in Rome.
During his final journey to the capital, Saint Ignatius wrote letters to various Christian communities in Asia Minor and Rome within which he extolls the importance of obedience to the local bishop, participation in the Eucharist, and unwavering faith in Jesus Christ. While there are several spurious letters attributed to the Bishop, the seven extant, authentic letters, which are here presented, demonstrate a clear articulation of the divinely revealed theological tenets; additionally, they showcase the Church's transition from a loose collection of communities to a more structured ecclesiastical organization As a true shepherd, Saint Ignatius stresses the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist – a reality made more poignant by the fact that he was instructed by the Apostle John, who wrote, in John 6, that the bread and wine are the body and blood of Christ.
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While not shying away from the fear and pain that awaited him, the bishop expressed his eagerness to unite with Christ fully, even if it meant facing a gruesome death. Ignatius's unshakeable faith in the face of severe persecution has since become an inspirational example for countless Christians throughout history.
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The Martyrdom of the second-century bishop, Polycarp, stands as a testimony to unwavering faith and enduring devotion to Christ in the early Christian church. Preserved by Saint Irenaeus of Lyon, who meticulously documented the accounts of Polycarp's fellow disciples, this account of Polycarp's martyrdom portends the grim-yet-glorious future awaiting many followers of Christ in the next two centuries. Polycarp, himself a disciple of the apostle John, holds a special place in Orthodox Christian history, embodying the essence of Christian witness amidst persecution. Indeed, the Greek word for witness, Martus, is the root of our English word martyrdom – and reminds us even today that true Christian witness lies in sacrifice.
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Like many generations of Christians before us, may we too draw inspiration from Polycarp's witness. Our challenge, then, is to follow the example of Polycarp when faced with martyrdom, be it the white martyrdom of humility and selflessness or the red martyrdom of physical death, by giving thanks to our Lord that he has counted us worthy. In the words of Saint Polycarp:
I give You thanks that You have counted me, worthy of this day and this hour, that I should have a part in the number of Your martyrs, in the cup of your Christ, to the resurrection of eternal life, both of soul and body.
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The life of the first century Bishop of Smyrna and disciple of the Apostle John, Saint Polycarp, stands as a faithful witness to the enduring power of the Gospel. Polycarp's epistle to the Philippians, written in the latter part of the second century, is the only extant letter of many believed to be written by the Smyrnaean bishop. In it, he encourages the Philippians congregation to persevere in their faith amidst persecution and trials, writing in chapter 8: "if we suffer for His name's sake, let us glorify Him." This exhortation made all the more powerful by his own martyrdom some time later.
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The following Epistle bears no signature or authorial identification beyond "Mathetes," which means "disciple" or "learner" in Greek. Although the earliest manuscripts of the letter come to us from the thirteen and fourteenth centuries, it is believed that it was written in the early second century A.D.
Although its intended recipient, Diognetus, remains somewhat of an enigma as well, he is believed to have been a highly respected individual of noble birth or philosophical disposition. The aim of Mathetes in writing the letter is to explain Christianity to this Diognetus, who appears to be curious about the faith was rapidly spreading throughout the Roman Empire. In doing so, he sets forth a beautiful tapestry of theological insights and ethical principles, revealing a deep spiritual consciousness grounded in the teachings of Jesus Christ.
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On top of its theological prose, the Epistle provides us with a window into the socio-cultural environment within which early Christians lived; indeed, it grants us a glimpse into their understanding of the purpose and role of the Church in the world, as well as their relationships with the wider society.
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Written sometime in the first century, the First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians offers valuable insights into the early Church's understanding of ecclesiology, pastoral care, and the exercise of authority. Traditionally, Saint Clement of Rome, who is revered as the second or third bishop of Rome and a direct witness to the traditions passed down from the apostle Peter himself, is believed to be the author of this work. Within the corpus of patristic literature, Clement's epistle is grouped alongside other early works into a collection called the "Apostolic Fathers" – all of which are understood to be a reflection of the teachings and practices of the early Christian communities by contemporaries (or near-contemporaries) of the Apostles.
Like many of the Apostolic writers, St. Clement makes pastoral and theological points weaving together large portions of Scripture. Doing so, he emphasizes a necessary harmony between faith and works, presents the mission of the clergy and the laity to be co-workers in spreading the Gospel, and lays out a vision of Church unity as the mystical body of Christ. To this end, he stresses the importance of maintaining peace and harmony within the community of believers.
Early Christian writings like this epistle provides twenty-first century Christians with a direct literary link to first-century Christianity – one that allows us to embrace the timeless teachings passed down to us from the apostolic age. Moreover, St. Clement's exhortations, insights, and teachings challenge us to remain true to the faith as we navigate the modern world.
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The Didache, which means "teaching" in Greek, is a first century Christian document that presents practical instructions for living the Christian life. From the start, the writer is emphatic that “there are two paths to follow: one is life and the other is death." And that "There is a profound difference between the two.” This theme of life and death is weaved throughout the manuscript. As one of the earliest Christian documents, it comes as no surprise that it, much like Paul's letters, contains a number of moral teachings; some outline the Ten Commandments, others reaffirm the teachings of our Lord Jesus Christ, and still others that draw practical conclusions from these teachings.
In addition to giving instruction on what not to do, it contains examples of what one should do. The writer encourages Christians to “honor” and “remember those who speak the word of God” and “study the saints each day…[to] find comfort in their words.” In this same passage there is a call to “confess [sins]…in the congregation.” Elsewhere, the author exhorts Christians to “be patient and merciful, innocent, quiet and honorable, always paying attention to what [they have] been taught.” Interestingly, though, the writer does not condemn those that cannot take upon themselves the full cross of Christ. Indeed, he remarks pastorally: “if you are able to carry the whole yoke of the Lord, your life will be complete. If you cannot do this, do what you are able.” This statement demonstrates an incredible pastoral flexibility present from the very beginning of the formation of Christian doctrine – one which stands in stark contrast to the black-and-white theological rigorism present in our day. Elsewhere, in chapter seven, we see a similar spirit with regards to baptismal form.
Some might be surprised to find that this first century document references and condemns the acts of abortion and infanticide: “Do not kill an unborn child by abortion, nor kill a newborn child.” This goes to show that, from the outset, the Church was aware of these practices (abortion or infanticide) and strictly condemned them. As an added point of interest, the document also contains lucrative information about early Church life: it speaks about baptism (in chapter 7), fasting and prayer (in chapter 8), the Eucharist (in chapter 9), and ordaining Bishops and Deacons (in chapter 15).
In keeping with the two path theme, the morality of the Didache hinges on the the fact that the “path of life” and the “path of death” are diametrically opposed to one another. Yet in keeping with this theme the author embodies a pastoral spirit – clarifying, in a sense, that one's direction – that is, the direction one is heading – is more important than how perfectly one walks that direction. In all, the text seems to serve as a practical extension of the morality found in the Holy Scriptures – one that sheds light on seemingly harmless habits to show their natural end: death.
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FROM THE BACK OF THE BOOK:
Is the soul gendered? While various answers to this question have been finding their way into mainstream Christian media over the past few years, the question itself has remained unasked – and the broader implications inherent in our answer to it have been left unconsidered. On Gender and the Soul by Benjamin Cabe is an in-depth exploration of sex/gender and its relation to the soul with the intention of drawing out the teachings of the Church Fathers on the subject and applying in today’s world.
📚 For detailed citations and bibliography, buy the book, on Amazon; if you prefer, you can listen to this book in chapters on YouTube.
You can read my piece on the history of transgender ideology (and how we got to where we are today) here.
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EndorsementsBenjamin Cabe presents an outstanding survey of the teachings of the patristic writers of undivided Christianity and the modern elders of the Orthodox Tradition, demonstrating their consensus on the nature of the human soul – and the specific examination of the soul’s relation to gender, the body, and sex. It is a seminal work of great value to scholar and novice, teacher and student, pastor and parishioner, physician and patient, in the midst of modern theories on gender issues. The patristic teachings presented herein will equip the reader with the Church’s guidance on the subject of sex and gender, amidst the contemporary cacophony of confusing opinions. I am confident that this book will promote needed and helpful dialogue and will contribute to spiritual healing, human thriving, and theosis.— Archbishop Michael (Dahulich), Rector of Saint Tikhon’s Orthodox Theological Seminary
This concise but erudite overview of the “theology of the soul” is opportune, in light of modern gender theories; here, Cabe reveals not only how an Orthodox understanding of human nature is essential within Christian theology, but also how it applies to the healing of persons experiencing gender dysphoria within the context of the Church. This work will be an insightful resource for faithful Christians serving in ministry, theology, education and medicine.— Lisa Gilbert, MD, FAAFP, Ascension Via Christi; Fellow of the National Catholic Bioethics Center
Benjamin Cabe, fills a lacuna in Orthodox theological studies, examining the patristic understanding of gender as it relates to the body and soul. On Gender and the Soul is an excellent beginning to a conversation, driven by the ancient Christian ideal of spiritual healing rather than a modern political or sociological agenda.— Fr. Joseph Lucas, author of Prayer of the Publican: Justification in the Desert Fathers
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