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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.21.354019v1?rss=1
Authors: Reece, J., Couvillon, M. J., Grueter, C., Ratnieks, F., Reyes-Aldasoro, C. C.
Abstract:
This work describe an algorithm for the automatic analysis of the waggle dance of honeybees. The algorithm analyses a video of a beehive with 13,624 frames, acquired at 25 frames/second. The algorithm employs the following traditional image processing steps: conversion to grayscale, low pass filtering, background subtraction, thresholding, tracking and clustering to detect run of bees that perform waggle dances. The algorithm detected 44,530 waggle events, i.e. one bee waggling in one time frame, which were then clustered into 511 waggle runs. Most of these were concentrated in one section of the hive. The accuracy of the tracking was 90% and a series of metrics like intra-dance variation in angle and duration were found to be consistent with literature. Whilst this algorithm was tested on a single video, the ideas and steps, which are simple as compared with Machine and Deep Learning techniques, should be attractive for researchers in this field who are not specialists in more complex techniques.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.20.390245v1?rss=1
Authors: Monari, P. K., Rieger, N. S., Hartfield, K., Schefelker, J., Marler, C. A.
Abstract:
Social context is critical in shaping behavioral responses to stimuli and can alter an individual's behavioral type, which would otherwise be fixed in social isolation. For monogamous biparental vertebrates, social context is critical as interactions are frequent and consistent, involving high interindividual dependence and cooperation that can lead to large fitness impacts. We demonstrate that in the strictly monogamous and highly territorial California mouse, individuals alter approach response to an aggressive conspecific playback stimulus, barks, to become more similar to their partner during early bonding prior to pup birth; an effect distinct from assortative mating. Additionally, sustained vocalizations, an affiliative ultrasonic vocalization when used between members of a pair, are associated with increased behavioral convergence following pair formation suggesting a vocal communication role in emergent pair behavior. We identified the neuropeptide oxytocin as sufficient to promote behavioral convergence in paired individuals who differed in their initial behavioral type, as characterized by approach behavior. Social context, specifically pair-bonding, appears vital for behavioral responses to aggressive signals. While non-bonded animals maintained stable responses, pair-bonding led to a pair emergent property, a convergence in behavioral responses. This convergence can be driven by oxytocin, revealing a significant expansion in oxytocin's effects on behavioral coordination.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.18.388702v1?rss=1
Authors: Heslin, K. A., Brown, M. F.
Abstract:
Helping behavior tasks are proposed to assess prosocial or empathic behavior in rodents. This paradigm characterizes the behavior of subject animals presented with the opportunity to release a conspecific from a distressing situation. Previous studies found a preference in rats for releasing restrained or distressed conspecifics over other controls (e.g., empty restrainers or inanimate objects). An empathy account was offered to explain the observed behaviors, claiming subjects were motivated to reduce the distress of others based on a rodent homologue of empathy. An opposing account attributes all previous results to subjects seeking social-contact. To dissociate these two accounts for helping behavior, we presented subject rats with three simultaneous choice alternatives: releasing a restrained conspecific, engaging a non-restrained conspecific, or not socializing. Subjects showed an initial preference for socializing with the non-restrained conspecific, and no preference for helping. This result contradicts the empathy account, but is consistent with the social-contact account of helping behavior.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.19.389999v1?rss=1
Authors: Saddler, M. R., Gonzalez, R., McDermott, J. H.
Abstract:
Computations on receptor responses enable behavior in the environment. Behavior is plausibly shaped by both the sensory receptors and the environments for which organisms are optimized, but their roles are often opaque. One classic example is pitch perception, whose properties are commonly linked to peripheral neural coding limits rather than environmental acoustic constraints. We trained artificial neural networks to estimate fundamental frequency from simulated cochlear representations of natural sounds. The best-performing networks replicated many characteristics of human pitch judgments. To probe how our ears and environment shape these characteristics, we optimized networks given altered cochleae or sound statistics. Human-like behavior emerged only when cochleae had high temporal fidelity and when models were optimized for natural sounds. The results suggest pitch perception is critically shaped by the constraints of natural environments in addition to those of the cochlea, illustrating the use of contemporary neural networks to reveal underpinnings of behavior.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.18.389346v1?rss=1
Authors: Wang, S.-F., Carr, V. A., Favila, S. E., Bailenson, J. N., Brown, T. I., Jiang, J., Wagner, A. D.
Abstract:
The hippocampus (HC) and surrounding medial temporal lobe (MTL) cortical regions play a critical role in spatial navigation and episodic memory. However, it remains unclear how the interaction between the hippocampal conjunctive coding and mnemonic differentiation contributes to neural representations of spatial environments. Multivariate functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) analyses enable examination of how human HC and MTL cortical regions encode multidimensional spatial information to support memory-guided navigation. We combined high-resolution fMRI with a virtual navigation paradigm in which participants relied on memory of the environment to navigate to goal locations in two different virtual rooms. Within each room, participants were cued to navigate to four learned locations, each associated with one of two reward values. Pattern similarity analysis revealed that when participants successfully arrived at goal locations, activity patterns in HC and parahippocampal cortex (PHC) represented room-goal location conjunctions and activity patterns in HC subfields represented room-reward-location conjunctions. These results add to an emerging literature revealing hippocampal conjunctive representations during goal-directed behavior.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.16.384289v1?rss=1
Authors: Lorenzi, E., Lemaire, B. S., Versace, E., Matsushima, T., Vallortigara, G.
Abstract:
For inexperienced brains, some stimuli are more attractive than others. Human neonates and newly-hatched chicks preferentially orient towards face-like stimuli, biological motion, and objects changing speed. In chicks, this enhances exposure to social partners, and subsequent attachment trough filial imprinting. Early preferences are not steady. The preference for stimuli changing speed fades away after three days in chicks. To understand the physiological mechanisms underlying these transient responses, we tested whether the early preferences for objects changing speed can be promoted by thyroid hormone 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3). This hormone determines the start of imprinting's sensitive period. We found that the preference for objects changing speed can be re-established in female chicks treated with T3. Moreover, day-one chicks treated with an inhibitor of endogenous T3 did not show any preference. These results suggest that the time windows of early predispositions and of high plasticity are controlled by the same molecular mechanisms.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.15.383364v1?rss=1
Authors: Rodriguez, C., Fusani, L., Raboisson, G., Hödl, W., Ringler, E., Canoine, V.
Abstract:
Territorial behaviour has been widely described across many animal taxa, where the acquisition and defence of a territory are critical for the fitness of an individual. Extensive evidence suggests that androgens (e.g. testosterone) are involved in the modulation of territorial behaviour in male vertebrates. Short-term increase of androgen following a territorial encounter appears to favour the outcome of a challenge. The "Challenge Hypothesis" proposed by Wingfield and colleagues outlines the existence of a positive feedback relationship between androgen and social challenges (e.g. territorial intrusions) in male vertebrates. Here we tested the challenge hypothesis in the highly territorial poison frog, Allobates femoralis, in its natural habitat by exposing males to simulated territorial intrusions in form of acoustic playbacks. We quantified repeatedly androgen concentrations of individual males via a non-invasive water-borne sampling approach. Our results show that A. femoralis males exhibited a positive behavioural and androgenic response after being confronted to simulated territorial intrusions, providing support for the Challenge Hypothesis in a territorial frog.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.16.384503v1?rss=1
Authors: Yang, C., Feeney, W. E.
Abstract:
Social learning is a mechanism by which behaviors can rapidly disseminate throughout a population. Rejection of foreign eggs is a key defense in hosts of avian brood parasites; however, whether social cues can inform whether a host rejects an egg remains unknown. Here, we aimed to determine whether access to social information can influence egg rejection behavior in semi-colonial barn swallows (Hirundo rustica). By manipulating the social information available from a neighboring nest, we found that swallows that had access to social information (i.e. neighbor recently rejected an egg) were more likely to reject a foreign egg compared to those that did not have access to social information (i.e. neighbor did not reject an egg). This result provides the first empirical evidence that egg rejection behaviors can solely be informed by social information, and in doing so highlights the dynamic nature of defenses that hosts can deploy against brood parasitism.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.16.385930v1?rss=1
Authors: Mason, D., Zajitschek, S., Anwer, H., O'Dea, R., Hesselson, D., Nakagawa, S.
Abstract:
Aversive learning, avoiding certain situations based on negative experiences, can profoundly increase fitness in animal species. The extent to which this cognitive mechanism could evolve depends upon individual differences in aversive learning being stable through time, and heritable across generations, yet no published study has quantified the stability of individual differences in aversive learning using the repeatability statistic, R (also known as the intra-class correlation). We assessed the repeatability of aversive learning by conditioning approximately 100 zebrafish (Danio rerio) to avoid a colour cue associated with a mild electric shock. Across eight different colour conditions zebrafish did not show consistent individual differences in aversive learning (R = 0.04). Within conditions, when zebrafish were twice conditioned to the same colour, blue conditioning was more repeatable than green conditioning (R = 0.15 and R = 0.02). In contrast to the low repeatability estimates for aversive learning, zebrafish showed moderately consistent individual differences in colour preference during the baseline period (i.e. prior to aversive conditioning; R {approx} 0.45). Overall, aversive learning responses of zebrafish were weak and variable (difference in time spent near the aversive cue <6 seconds per minute), but individual differences in learning ability did not explain substantial variability. We speculate that either the effect of aversive learning was too weak to quantify consistent individual differences, or directional selection might have eroded additive genetic variance. Finally, we discuss how confounded repeatability assays and publication bias could have inflated average estimates of repeatability in animal behaviour publications.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.16.385286v1?rss=1
Authors: Montes-Lourido, P., Kar, M., Kumbam, I., Sadagopan, S.
Abstract:
Estimates of detection and discrimination thresholds are often used to explore broad perceptual similarities between human subjects and animal models. Pupillometry shows great promise as a non-invasive, easily-deployable method of comparing human and animal thresholds. Using pupillometry, previous studies in animal models have obtained threshold estimates to simple stimuli such as pure tones, but have not explored whether similar pupil responses can be evoked by complex stimuli, what other stimulus contingencies might affect stimulus-evoked pupil responses, and if pupil responses can be modulated by experience or short-term training. In this study, we used an auditory oddball paradigm to estimate detection and discrimination thresholds across a wide range of stimuli in guinea pigs. We demonstrate that pupillometry yields reliable detection and discrimination thresholds across a range of simple (tones) and complex (conspecific vocalizations) stimuli; that pupil responses can be robustly evoked using different stimulus contingencies (low-level acoustic changes, or higher level categorical changes); and that pupil responses are modulated by short-term training. These results lay the foundation for using pupillometry as a high-throughput method of estimating thresholds in large experimental cohorts, and unveil the full potential of using pupillometry to explore broad similarities between humans and animal models.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.13.378257v1?rss=1
Authors: Gottschalk, G., Keating, J. F., Kesler, K., Knox, K., Roy, A.
Abstract:
Abstract: Previously, we have demonstrated that ACIS KEPTIDE, a chemically modified peptide, selectively binds to ACE-2 receptor and prevents the entry of SARS-CoV2 virions in vitro in primate kidney Cells. However, it is not known if ACIS KEPTIDE attenuates the entry of SARS-CoV2 virus in vivo in lung and kidney tissues, protects health, and prevent death once applied through intranasal route. In our current manuscript, we demonstrated that the intranasal administration of SARS-CoV2 (1*106) strongly induced the expression of ACE-2, promoted the entry of virions into the lung and kidney cells, caused acute histopathological toxicities, and mortality (28%). Interestingly, thirty-minutes of pre-treatment with 50 g/Kg Body weight ACIS normalized the expression of ACE-2 via receptor internalization, strongly mitigated that viral entry, and prevented mortality suggesting its prospect as a prophylactic therapy in the treatment of COVID-19. On the contrary, the peptide backbone of ACIS was unable to normalize the expression of ACE-2, failed to improve the health vital signs and histopathological abnormalities. In summary, our results suggest that ACIS is a potential vaccine-alternative, prophylactic agent that prevents entry of SARS-CoV2 in vivo, significantly improves respiratory health and also dramatically prevents acute mortality in K18-hACE2 humanized mice.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.14.382622v1?rss=1
Authors: Vandaele, Y., Lenoir, M., Vouillac-Mendoza, C., Guillem, K., Ahmed, S. H.
Abstract:
Investigating the decision-making mechanisms underlying choice between drug and nondrug rewards is essential to understand how their alterations can contribute to substance use disorders. However, despite some recent effort, this investigation remains a challenge in a drug choice setting, notably when it comes to delineate the role of goal-directed versus habitual control mechanisms. The goal of this study was to try probing these different mechanisms by comparing response latencies measured during sampling (i.e., only one option is available) and choice trials. A deliberative goal-directed control mechanism predicts a lengthening of latencies during choice whereas a habitual control mechanism predicts no change in latencies. Alternatively, a race-like response competition mechanism, such as that postulated by the behavioral ecology-inspired Sequential Choice Model (SCM), predicts instead a shortening of response latencies during choice compared to sampling. Here we tested the predictions of these different mechanisms by conducting a systematic retrospective analysis of all cocaine versus saccharin choice experiments conducted in rats in our laboratory over the past 12 years. Overall, we found that rats engage a deliberative goal-directed mechanism after limited training, but shift to a SCM-like response selection mechanism after more extended training. The latter finding suggests that habitual control is engaged in a choice setting via a race-like response competition mechanism, and thus, that the SCM is not a general model of choice, as formulated initially, but a specific model of habitual choice.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.13.381996v1?rss=1
Authors: O'Bryan, L. R., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., Wilson, M. L.
Abstract:
Food-associated calls have attracted much research attention due to their potential to refer to discovered food in a word-like manner. Nevertheless, their effect on receiver behavior remains unclear for many species. While some studies suggest that food-associated calls attract other foragers, other studies indicate that they repel others. We conducted playback studies to differentiate between these two hypotheses for the function of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) food-associated "rough grunt". We tested how acoustic playbacks of rough grunts (or control calls) from one of two known, identical food patches affected receivers' foraging decisions in a captive setting. We found that participants were more likely than chance to first investigate the patch from which rough-grunts, but not control calls, were broadcast. However, neither condition increased the likelihood that participants fed first from a given patch. Our results support the hypothesis that rough-grunts attract receivers. However, since receivers were already aware of the presence of food, our results question whether rough-grunts attract by conveying information about discovered food, or rather, the signaler's motivational state.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.14.382507v1?rss=1
Authors: Finkbeiner, S. D., Briscoe, A. D.
Abstract:
True color vision in animals is achieved when wavelength discrimination occurs based on chromatic content of the stimuli, regardless of intensity. In order to successfully discriminate between multiple wavelengths, animals must use at least two photoreceptor types with different spectral sensitivity peaks. Heliconius butterflies have duplicate UV opsin genes, which encode two kinds of photoreceptors with peak sensitivities in the ultraviolet and violet, respectively. In H. erato, the ultraviolet photoreceptor is only expressed in females. Evidence from intracellular recordings suggests female H. erato may be able to discriminate between UV wavelengths, however, this has yet to be tested experimentally. Using an arena with a controlled light setting, we tested the ability of H. erato, and two species lacking the violet receptor, H. melpomene and outgroup Eueides isabella, to discriminate between two ultraviolet wavelengths, 380 and 390 nm, as well as two blue wavelengths, 400 and 436 nm, after being trained to associate each stimulus with a food reward. Wavelength stimuli were presented in varying intensities to rule out brightness as a cue. We found that H. erato females were the only butterflies capable of color vision in the UV range; the other butterflies had an intensity-dependent preference for UV stimuli. Across species, both sexes showed color vision in the blue-range. Models of H. erato color vision suggest that females have an advantage over males in discriminating the inner UV-yellow corolla of Psiguria pollen flowers from the surrounding outer orange petals, while previous models (McCulloch et al. 2017) suggested that H. erato males have an advantage over females in discriminating Heliconius 3-hyroxykynurenine (3-OHK) yellow wing coloration from non-3-OHK yellow wing coloration found in mimics. These results provide some of the first behavioral evidence for UV color discrimination in Heliconius females in the context of foraging, lending support to the hypothesis (Briscoe et al. 2010) that the duplicated UV opsin genes function together in UV color vision. Taken together, the sexually dimorphic visual system of H. erato appears to have been shaped by both sexual selection and sex-specific natural selection.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.12.380683v1?rss=1
Authors: Ruland, M., Andirko, A., Romanowska, I., Boeckx, C.
Abstract:
A central question in the evolution of human language is whether it emerged as a result of one specific event or from a mosaic-like constellation of different phenomena and their interactions. Three potential processes have been identified by recent research as the potential primum mobile for the origins of modern linguistic complexity: Self-domestication, characterized by a reduction in reactive aggression and often associated with a gracilization of the face; changes in early brain development manifested by globularization of the skull; and demographic expansion of H.~sapiens during the Middle Pleistocene. We developed an agent-based model to investigate how these three factors influence transmission of information within a population. Our model shows that there is an optimal degree of both hostility and mental capacity at which the amount of transmitted information is the largest. It also shows that linguistic communities formed within the population are strongest under circumstances where individuals have high levels of cognitive capacity available for information processing and there is at least a certain degree of hostility present. In contrast, we find no significant effects related to population size.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.13.379719v1?rss=1
Authors: Habedank, A., Urmersbach, B., Kahnau, P., Lewejohann, L.
Abstract:
Existing methods for analysis of home cage based preference tests are either time consuming, not suitable for group management, expensive and/or based on proprietary equipment that is not freely available. For this reason, we developed an automated system for group housed mice based on radio frequency identification: the Mouse Position Surveillance System (MoPSS). The system uses an Arduino microcontroller with compatible components, it is affordable and easy to rebuild for every laboratory. The MoPSS was validated using female C57BL/6J mice and manual video comparison. It proved to be accurate even for fast moving mice (up to 100 % accuracy after logical reconstruction), and is already implemented in several studies in our laboratory. Here, we provide the complete construction description as well as the validation data and the results of an example experiment. This tracking system will allow group-based preference testing with individually identified mice to be carried out in a convenient manner, creating the foundation for better housing conditions from the animals' perspective.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.13.381012v1?rss=1
Authors: Dubois, T., Pasquaretta, C., Barron, A., Gautrais, J., Lihoreau, M.
Abstract:
Central place foraging pollinators tend to develop multi-destination routes (traplines) to exploit several patchily distributed plant resources. While the formation of traplines by individual pollinators has been studied in details, how populations of individuals exploit resources in a common area is an open ques-tion difficult to address experimentally. Here we explored conditions for the emergence of resource partitioning among traplining bees using agent-based models built from experimental data of bumble-bees foraging on artificial flowers. In the models, bees learn to develop routes as a consequence of feedback loops that change their probabilities of moving between flowers. While a positive reinforce-ment of route segments leading to rewarding flowers is sufficient for the emergence of resource parti-tioning when flowers are evenly distributed, a negative reinforcement of route segments leading to un-rewarding flowers is necessary when flowers are patchily distributed. In these more complex environ-ments, the negative experiences of individual bees favour the spatial segregation of foragers and high levels of collective foraging efficiency.
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.11.377788v1?rss=1
Authors: Habedank, A., Kahnau, P., Lewejohann, L.
Abstract:
In rodents, the T-maze test is commonly used to investigate spontaneous alternating behaviour but it can also be used to investigate memory, stimuli discrimination or preference between goods. However, especially regarding T-maze preference tests there is no recommended protocol and researchers frequently report reproduction difficulties of this test using mice. Here, we aimed to develop an efficient protocol with female C57BL/6J mice, conducting two preference tests with different design: In a first test, on two consecutive days with five trials, thirteen mice had to choose between two fluids. In a second preference test, on five consecutive days with two (week 1) or three (week 2) trials, twelve mice had to choose between one arm containing bedding mixed with millet and one containing only bedding. This test design resembled a simple learning test (learn where to find the rewarded and the unrewarded arm on the basis of spatial, olfactory and visual cues). In both experiments, mice took only a few seconds per trial to run the maze and make their choice. However, in both experiments mice failed to show any preference for one of the arms. Instead, they alternated choices. We therefore believe the T-maze test to be rather unsuitable to test preference or learning behaviour with C57BL/6J mice.
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Link to bioRxiv paper: http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.09.374025v1?rss=1Authors: Tontini, J. F., Poli, C. H. E. C., Hampel, V. d. S., Farias, M. d. S., Fajardo, N. M., Silva, J. A. d., Farinatti, L. H. E., Muir, J. P., Jalise Fabiola Tontini, Cesar Henrique Espirito Candal Poli, Viviane da Silva HampelAbstract: Tropical sward characteristics can alter lamb ingestive behavior. Our study evaluated the ingestive behavior of young lambs in different tropical pastures to identify which variables interfere in their grazing activity. Two years of study were carried out with 54 weaned lambs distributed in three different swards: 1) monoculture of a upright grass, guinea grass (Panicum maximum; GG); 2) monoculture of a shrubby legume pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan; PP) and 3) contiguous areas with half the paddock with GG and half with PP (GP). The experiment was set out in a randomized complete block design. Lamb ingestive behavior was observed from sunrise to sunset with records every 5 minutes. To identify the main variables that affected with the lamb grazing activity, a multivariate analysis of the Decision Tree was performed. Our results showed that there was no difference in the ingestive behavior parameters of young lambs in different swards (P > 0.05). There was interaction among the swards and the experimental periods for the variables idleness time and biting rate (P [≤] 0.05). Grazing time of the animals increased 40% with experimental period progression. The Decision Tree identified leaf:stem ratio as the variable that most influenced lamb grazing time in GG and GP swards while in the PP sward grazing time was directly related to the pasture height. The behavior of young lambs on tropical pasture is variable as there is a change in the behavioral response over time. In addition, the grazing time of these animals can be estimated by means of variables related to pasture structural characteristics (leaf:stem ratio and height) together with chemical variables.Copy rights belong to original authors. Visit the link for more info
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Link to bioRxiv paper:
http://biorxiv.org/cgi/content/short/2020.11.09.373993v1?rss=1
Authors: Luo, H., Wang, Q., Wang, L.
Abstract:
Aims In the present research, we assessed the therapeutic effects of Exendin-4 (Ex-4) on rat models with spinal cord injury (SCI). Materials and methods 36 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly allocated into three groups, including sham operation group, SCI group and SCI+Ex-4 group (Ex-4 treatment (10 {micro}g/rat) after SCI, i.p.). In the SCI group, a laminectomy was performed at the T10 vertebrae, followed by weight-drop contusion of the spinal cord. In the sham group, a laminectomy was carried out without SCI contusion. Key findings Our results showed that Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan scale scores were significantly decreased after SCI, and were obviously improved in SCI rats with Ex-4 administration. Additionally, the water content of spinal cord in SCI group was dramatically increased than that in sham group, and after Ex-4 treatment, degree of edema of spinal cord was remarkably reduced. And also, concentration levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-1{beta}, IL-6 and TNF-) in the spinal cord were significantly elevated after SCI, and were remarkably reduced in SCI rats with Ex-4 administration. Subsequently, cell apoptosis rate in the injured spinal cord was significantly increased, and after Ex-4 treatment, cell apoptosis rate was remarkably decreased. We also revealed that levels of PCBP2 mRNA and protein were significantly up-regulated after SCI, and were dramatically dropped in SCI rats with Ex-4 administration. Significance Take altogether, our findings disclosed that Ex-4 plays a role in promoting neurological function recovery and inhibiting neuronal apoptosis through effecting PCBP2 expression in SCI rat models.
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